3.2. Off-the-job training

There is a number of off-the-job training methods that managers may want to make available to employees. The most popular methods are classroom lectures, films, and simulation exercises. Classroom lectures are well suited for conveying specific information. They can be used effectively for developing technical and problem-solving skills. Films can also be used to explicitly demonstrate technical skills. Table 2 makes a comparison between off- and on-the-job training. It indicates the essential parts as well as the differences between these two methods of training. For more details about on- and off-the-job training, see Refs. [37], [38] and [39].

Table 2. Off-the-job training versus on-the-job training

Off-the-job training On-the-job training

Emphasis on Learning basic facts and skills Getting the job done

Ultimate goal ‘‘Knowing” Developing ‘‘best practices”

Knowledge Static, decontextualized, general Dynamic, situated, practice-oriented

Topics/problems Given by curriculum Arise from and embedded in work situation

Scope of learning Primarily inpidual Inpidual, group, organization

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4. Motivation

Motivation may be defined as the characteristic of an inpidual willing to expend effort towards a particular set of behaviours. In a training context, motivation can influence the willingness of an employee to attend the training program [40] and [41], to exert energy toward the program, and to apply what they learn in the program onto the job. Thus, it is likely that trainees cannot reap the full benefits of training without the consideration of training motivation [42]. Cheng and Ho reviewed studies conducted in the past decade and concluded that training motivation influences trainees’ training performance and transfer outcomes [43]. Colquitt et al. suggested that even if trainees possess the ability to learn the content of a course, they might fail to benefit from the training because of low motivation [44]. The key to motivating employees is to find proper ways to satisfy their needs. Each inpidual has different needs. These needs can be broken down into a few basic categories: workers participation, recognition, and team belonging. For workers participation, many employees are motivated when they are ‘‘empowered” and feel that their participation is important in making the company successful. When employees feel empowered in such ways, they will work in ways that not only meet their own needs but also the needs of the company as a whole. In the words of Nesan and Holt: ‘‘The participative approach addresses development of good supervisor–subordinate relationships and cohesive work groups in order to satisfy both social needs and the needs of business demand” [27]. To encourage worker participation, managers are advised to use a system that identifies and rewards workers who do a good job. For example, construction workers can receive a financial bonus for identifying ways to improve the quality of their company’s operations [45]. Olomolaiye et al. asserted that money is a powerful motivator and claimed that a well-designed reward system will ‘‘lead to higher productivity for the employer and extra pay for the employees for their efforts” [46].

Recognition, aside from financial inducements, is also regarded as a powerful means to inspire enthusiasm among employees. Nesan and Holt note that ‘‘positive reinforcement” is especially effective when it is applied to teams, rather than inpiduals, and they recommend, for example, giving an award of recognition to the ‘‘Crew of the Month”. According to these authors, although financial incentives are useful in motivating construction employees, their studies have also revealed that ‘‘several people had achieved significant success with recognition as opposed to rewards” [27].