熟练教师与新晋教师在初中英语课堂指令上的对比研究(3)
In China, many researchers also share their understandings. Zhu Donghua (2002) states in his study that instruction is designed for students to follow in classroom activities so that students can learn a foreign language in a real situation and context. Yao Renhuan and Hong Wei (2011) think instruction can be concluded as the language used in classroom when the teachers organize learning activities, monitoring and controlling learner’s behaviors in class, guiding the students to a certain activity by explaining the content and the operating procedure.
Except for “classroom instruction”, other terms such as “directive”, “instructional directives”, “directions” and “instructional language/words” are often used in other literatures. In this research, classroom instruction is narrowly defined as the language that the teacher used to perform functions when organizing the learning activities in language classroom.
2.2 The Classification of Instruction
There are different kinds of classification of classroom instruction, and actually there’s no fixed grouping. Most classifications found in the previous studies are based on the functions of the instruction. The function that CI plays in the language classroom is quite a popular basis. He A.W. (2000) thinks it can be generalized into teaching instruction and disciplinary instruction. “Effective instruction includes: scaffolded instruction, structure and organization, differentiated instruction, opportunities to respond (OTR), positive and corrective feedback, and motivational systems” (Martella et al., 2012; Vaughn & Bos, 2012, cited from Martella & Marchand, 2015: 247). In another study, instructions are clarified by the actions: giving feedback; explaining concept or procedure; checking knowledge; focusing attention or effort; applying, extending or planning; eliciting and incorporating input; managing (Fogarty, & Others, 1982). A case study classifies CI by observing and video-taping and then collects the materials. The researchers introduces ten categories: “feedback, describing a concept or performance, checking know-how or understanding, directing observations, applying or extending instructions, encouraging pupils to make initiatives and use of initiatives in teaching, direct instruction, setting problems, planning instructions or course of lesson and controlling the group.” Among these categories, the researchers found that the two most common types are describing a concept or performance and giving feedback (Moilanen et al., 2012).
In the Chinese version provided by Guo Linhua (2005), instruction is pided on the basis of Searle (1969)’s theory of Speech Acts and Yule (1996)’s standard of classification related to forms and functions in language structure. Synthesizing those theoretical bases, instruction can be separated by different sentence types. An imperative sentence is a direct instruction, while a declarative sentence or an interrogative sentence appears an indirect instruction. Zhu Donghua (2002) also notices the function on language itself and pides CI into commands, requires and suggestions.
Based on the prior studies, in this study, CI would be classified according to the cases. It would be pided into the following types: direct instruction, explanation, feedback, transition, checking, questioning, prompt and class-controlling. Also, the instruction accompanied with body language and teaching aids would be noted down.
2.3 The Principles of Classroom Instruction
2.3.1 Make Instruction Simple and Clear
Harmer (1998) points out two basic principles of teachers’ instruction from the perspective of students: the instruction must be simple and short; the instruction should be logical. Recent studies in China have investigated the principles in more specific observation experiments. Lin Lin (2014) indicates that when organizing the class to do a collective learning activity, the use of imperative sentence can make the instruction executed more efficiently because of its directness in meaning and simplicity in structure. In Xie Huizhen (2014)’s recent study, she also points out the problem that some teachers give the instructions that are complex and tediously long, even including some compound sentences with clauses, with which the instruction seems not to serve for the students.